Laura Mulvey's Theory

Laura Mulvey

Laura Mulvey is a British feminist film theorist. She was educated at St Hilda's college, Oxford, and she is currently professor of film and media studies at Birbeck University of London. She is best known for her essay, Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema. Her feminist film theory laid out in the article develops as a logical argument from two assertions:

• Cinema Reflects Society
• Society is Patriarchal

Patriarchy

Patriarchy is a social system in which males hold primary power and predominate in roles of political leadership, moral authority, social privilege and control of property. Males dominate in the domain of the family, fathers or father figures hold authority over women and children. It implies that the institutions of male domination and entails female subordination. Many patriarchal societies are also patrilineal, which means that property and title are inherited by the male lineage. 

The Male Gaze

Laura Mulvey's argument is based upon the theory that the 'gaze' of the camera is the 'male gaze'. Whilst the male gaze is active, the female gaze is passive. Within the narrative, male characters direct their gaze towards female characters, and so the woman is the image, and the man is the bearer of the look. Laura Mulvey criticises Alfred Hitchcock for his portrayal of women, for his movie Rear Window supported her theories on male voyeurism in cinema, for the main male character was looking at two women undressing to get into a jacuzzi, and a ballerina who was wearing revealing clothing. His view of the ballerina's apartment, as well as the audience's view, is unrestrained, and that continues throughout the movie, which puts her character as a figure for the male gaze.

The Triple Gaze 

The spectator is forced to identify with the male gaze for the camera films from the optical, as well as libidinal, point of view of the male character. This created three levels of the cinematic gaze (the camera, the character and the spectator) which objectifies the female character, creating the triple gaze.

In James Bond - Doctor No, the triple gaze is present for Sean Connery is staring at Ursula Andress coming out of the ocean. The triple gaze shows the audience looking through the camera watching Connery looking at Andress. 

In James Bond - Die Another Day, the male gaze is on Halle Berry coming out of the ocean, and it is an obvious gaze for James Bond has binoculars in which he is staring at Halle Berry's character.  Her sexuality is exploited throughout the scene for she is walking in an unnatural way with her hips moving more than normal, and James Bond doesn't take his eyes off of her throughout this scene, and whilst it shoots back to James Bond staring, the camera is almost always on Halle Berry, and so the audience is watching James Bond watch Halle Berry. 

In Transformers, Megan Fox's character is subjected to the male gaze for Shia Laboeuf is staring at Megan Fox's body. Her character is wearing revealing clothing, and when she gets out of the car to look at the bonnet of the car, her top rides up,  showing her stomach.  The audience is forced to watch the exploitation of Megan Fox's body as the camera tilts upwards to show all of her body.

The Triple Gaze is present in James Bond - Casino Royale, however, it is different to the other examples of the Triple Gaze for this time, both the male and female are looking at each other, so the audience is subjected to watching the female watch James Bond, and Bond watching the female. This could be to attract the female audience as well as the male audience, and it challenges the idea that only the male gaze is present in films. 

Erotic Desire

Laura Mulvey argues that women have two roles in classical cinema:

• As an object of erotic desire for the characters
• As an object of erotic desire for the audience.

However, Thelma and Louise challenge this theory and the object of desire is Brad Pitt. Brad Pitt's sexual appeal is exploited for he has no shirt on and the camera is on him throughout the scene. The woman in the scene looks all over Brad Pitt's body, and the audience is subjected to the exploitation.

In Top Gun, there is a homosexual view, for the men are staring at the other male characters. Male sexual appeal is exploited in this film for the men are wearing no shirts, and so the audience is forced to watch the exploitation of the male body. This would have attracted the female audience as well as the male audience, for it is an action film, and so men would be the target audience, however, this scene challenges the idea that action movies target audience is male only. 

Music Videos

Laura Mulvey's argument regarding the male gaze is particularly relevant when considering music videos. A significant proportion of music videos feature women as objects of erotic desire.  

In Madonna's video for Vogue, this idea of the male gaze is music video is present, for Madonna's body is exploited throughout the video. She wears revealing clothing, and in some scenes she is topless with her arms covering her chest. It is not only Madonna who is exploited in this music video but also other women in the video, for they are wearing revealing and short clothing. This subjects the audiences view to the sexual appeal of the women and forces them to the exploitation of women's bodies. 

Another video where the male gaze is present is Rihanna's video for Shut Up And Drive. In this video,  the audience is subjected to the exploitation of Rihanna and the other women in the video, and the video is seemingly aimed at the male audience for the women are working in a garage, mending cars. However, this idea of having women working in a stereotypical male career could suggest that they are trying to challenge the idea that there are male and female careers. However, this idea is then destroyed for the women are wearing revealing clothing and dancing in an desirable form, and so they are still dominated by the male audience. The male audience would be attracted to this video for the use of the exploitation of the female body.

Agency

Agency is a term used for characters which are able to make decisions themselves based on their own desires and ideas, They are characters who are able to act for themselves, and this is called agency. 

In the classical Hollywood cinema, the male protagonist has agency, for he is active and powerful. He is the character in which the dramatic action all unfolds around. The female character is passive and powerless. She is the object of desire for the protagonist and the audience.

There are not many female characters with agency in films, however, the female characters which do are the central characters and they gain a wide fanbase of women.

Katniss from The Hunger Games is a very good example of female characters with agency. She does not wear revealing clothing such as women in other films, and her character is a role model for many female teenagers for Katniss is a main source of independence. Another central female character with agency is Tris from Divergent. Her body is covered up throughout the film and so her sexual appeal is not exploited. Also, her character has many action scenes and she moves the storyline along throughout the film. The whole film is mainly based around her.  Ripley from Alien is another female character with agency for she is the central character and she moves the storyline along. She is not exploited throughout the film, for, like Katniss and Tris, her clothing covers up her body and the audience is not subjected to the male gaze. These characters have created a large amount of female viewers but also, men are a part of the audience for the film.

Andrew Goodwin Key Features of Music Videos

Andrew Goodwin in Dancing in the Distraction Factory (1992) has identified the following features of music videos:

Key features of music videos



  Andrew Goodwin had many different views on the certain features of music videos.

• Music videos demonstrate genre characteristics (e.g. stage performance in metal video, dance routine for boy/girl band).

This video below is an example of a stage performance in a metal video. It is by a band called Iron Maiden. It contains many different editing techniques and camera shots, such as shooting back to the audience and the camera being in the audience to seem like a point of view shot. This is a good example of a metal video for a metal video would stereotypically contain scenes from a live performance from the band's concert.

Another good example of a stage performance in a metal video is Metallica "Master Of Puppets." This contains many shorts throughout the video of the stage performance as well as the story of the video. It uses many different camera shots and editing techniques, such as shooting to the live performance of the band playing at the concert, to the story of the music video. This is effective for it shows the atmosphere of the concert and creates the feeling that the audience is actually there watching the band play live. 

          

Below is an example of a dance routine in a boy band called N Sync. A routine video would have to have the band dancing in time with the other dancers and it would have to be choreographed without fault. The dance would be entertaining and very synchronised with the rest of the band. The lead singer may also dance but sometimes they go to the front and sing whilst the other members of the band are dancing. 

          

This is a good example of a dance routing in a girl band called Spice Girls. It starts off with the music video just starting and the narrative and setting behind the music video, and then it presents the band in a synchronised dance routine. The dance would be very entertaining for the audience and the fans will try to imitate the band and learn it in their friends groups. 

• There is a relationship between lyrics and visuals (either illustrative, amplifying, contradicting.) 

An illustrative music video is where there is a visual form to the lyrics. The video will be illustrated and will link in to the lyrics. One good example of an illustrative video is McFly's video Love is Easy. The visuals can also work together, such as illustrative and amplifying. In this video, McFly use an imaginative use of illustration to create an original and effective music video. 

This video of Daniel Powter "Bad Day" is a good example of illustrative and amplifying visuals which work with the lyrics. The video presents a man and a woman on split screens, both having a bad day which is illustrated by the lyrics, and throughout the video, Daniel Powter is shown playing the piano and singing.

• The demands of the record label will include the need for lots of close-ups of the artist and the artist may develop motifs which recur across their work. (a visual style) For example, Katy Perry/ Michael Jackson.

5 Seconds of Summer use close ups of the band performing during the music video and it will keep shooting back and forth, from the story of the video to the band.

Michael Jackson is a good example of a motif which recurs across his work. His white glove is famous throughout his video and he is known to wear it throughout his videos. It would focus attention on his music videos for fans would search for other traits which he might have.

• There is frequently reference to the notion of looking (screens within screens, telescopes, etc) and particularly voyeuristic treatment of the female body. Laura Mulvey's theory on the male gaze fits in with this key feature, for it explains about the notion of looking and the voyeuristic treatment of the female body.

This video is a good example of the voyeuristic treatment of the female body for it presents women wearing provocative and alluring clothing which is not very realistic of the modern day. A recurring theme in the song is the lead singer surrounded by girls, and singing to the girls.  The Male Gaze is shown in this video for the lead singer is singing and staring at the girls. Also, the girls do not move the plot forward, because it changes the actresses all throughout the video, and so the women do not have agency.

Fountains of Wayne- Stacy's Mom is a good example of the notion of looking, and it includes voyeuristic treatment of the female body for throughout the video, the boy is staring at the mom, who is acting/dressing in a provocative way. Also, the band have incorporated themselves in the music video by using the notion of looking for the boy and the girl are looking at the tv which the band is playing on.  Laura Mulvey's theory is also used in this music video for the boy is constantly staring at Stacy's mum, and the audience is watching him stare at the mum. 

• There is often intertextual reference to films, TV programmes, other music videos, etc.

This key feature relates to all intertextual reference to different types of media in the music videos, such as The Wanted's video "Walks Like Rihanna." In this video, The Wanted use different ideas from other music videos and try to imitate them, such as N Sync, Take That and Backstreet boys. This was a fun and entertaining video for the audience could guess who they were imitating, and it is a good use of intertextuality from other music videos.

Key Features of a Music Video

Star theory Richard Dyer

Stars as constructions

Richard Dyer claims that artificial images (advertising, films, magazines and music) construct the artists.

He believes that consumers prefer artists to reveal their genuine motions themselves and not be falsely created by the record labels to fit the general stereotypes of the music business.

A "real" artist will use their true image as their unique selling point.

Ed Sheeran

One good example of a genuine artist is Ed Sheeran, who writes his own music. He isn't the stereotypical good looking male singer and so it can be said that people like Ed Sheeran for his music alone. He doesn't seem to dwell on his appearance, and values his music as far more important than any other factor. He puts emotion into his songs and he is a very modest person which many of his fans would respect him for. He is seen as a genuine artist for he creates the music he wants to create, not just for money and fame.

                                              

Richard Dyer also believes that stars are manufactured to make money for their record labels by appealing to target audiences.

As a result of this record labels have to market different artists to appeal to certain target audiences as there are both ‘niche’ and ‘mainstream’ markets. 

Another of Dyers beliefs within his Star Theory is that artists become trendsetters, in which their fans will try and imitate their certain traits, such as hairstyles and clothing sense.

Jack Barakat, a band member from All Time Low, has a famous trait; his skunk hair. Many of the band's fans have dyed their hair to match his, therefore following his trend. 

 

Another band member, Ashton Irwin, from 5 Seconds Of Summer, will always be seen wearing a bandana, which has become a famous trait throughout the fandom. Most of the fans imitate the band's clothing and it has become a trend worldwide; plaid shirts have come back to fashion, which the band had a major part in.

Dyer also believed that the audience may pick up on cultural values and religious beliefs of artists, and claim to have the same views as them. Dan Reynolds from imagine Dragons, Brendon Urie from Panic! At The Disco, and Brandon Flowers from The Killers, are all mormon, and it could be said that a few of their fans claimed to be mormon when they found out about the member's religious beliefs.

Audiences have far greater access to the personal lives of stars, through means of the internet. Almost all artists have their own social media pages, such as Instagram, twitter etc. This presents the stars as real human beings, and the fans can see the true side to the stars. 

As well as having social media pages which helped fans keep in time with Fall Out Boy's movements, the band also created their own game in the design of the popular Flappy Bird.

Some stars support the hegemony/dominant ideology of their generation, and they attempt to get their fans to aim for the best. This presents the stars as just glorified versions of 'us,' who actually achieved the things that the audience wants to achieve. Antonio Gramsci is famous for his theory of cultural hegemony, which describes how states use cultural institutions to maintain power in capitalist societies.  This can be shown in Drake's video, Started From The Bottom. In this music video, he is supporting hegemony for he is reinforcing the american dream, and trying to motivate people to work hard and gain success.

            

Artists within obviously defined categories/music genres, such as rock and rap, are created and promoted by the music industry. These different genres often give out signs and symbols which send out specific messages, relating to race and gender identities. 

                           

This music video reinforces the existing stereotypes of gender and race identities, for Chris Brown sings about 'girls' who aren't trustworthy, and he uses offensive and stereotypical terms, relating to gender and race. This is promoting the use of stereotypes surrounding gender and race, and suggesting that it is okay to believe in them.

Another particular music video which reinforces the existing stereotypes of gender and race identities is Lil Wayne, for in his music video, he sings about 'grinding' against women, and throughout the music video, there is a constant image through the lyrics that girls are only good for sexual purposes. 

Deconstructing Britney Spears

There are many intriguing issues regarding female identity in pop music, and Britney Spears has raised many in her videos. When Britney first became famous, she was initially viewed as a role model for the teen girl market. She is seen to be placed securely within a male-dominated industry, which constructs limited stereotypes of femininity. Because of the lack of females in the male dominated industry, Britney became popular with the teen girl audience, and she became a role model for them. In Britney's early videos, she was surrounded by 'girlie iconography,' which creates the image of dolls, dressing up with friends, make-up and hanging out. 

Her famous trait was teen pigtails., which completes the image of girl iconography. 

Throughout her videos, she used choreographed dance routines, which, for her fans, create the desire to be part of 'her gang.'

"Baby One More Time" was one of Britney's biggest hits. She is surrounded by her girlie iconography and this video exploits her femininity in the male dominated industry. In this video, Britney is wearing some form of school uniform in a school setting, which would create a connection between Britney and her fan-base for her target audience was teenage girls. However, however, an underlying sexuality opposes the innocence of Britney's school girl character in this video for her top is tucked up which shows her stomach, and she wears a sports bra for her next costume. This video is exploitative for the male dominated industry is exploiting Britney's femininity and sexual appeal to gain media attention. 

Britney's songs and video narratives reflect the teen girl identity and the concerns which might surround her teen fan base. One example of this is "From The Bottom Of My Broken Heart." In this video,  Britney is singing about a break-up between her and her first love. The beginning of the video shows Britney packing her belongings, and she packs her doll which could suggest that she is not ready to give up her childhood and become an adult. These are growing concerns surrounding teenage girls, and Britney is showing that she is identifying with them and her fan base will be able to relate to her and feel connected to Britney. 

Another video which illustrates Britney's journey from childish innocence to realities of adult life is "I'm not a girl, not yet a woman." In this video from the film "Crossroads", Britney is constructed as a role model for it shows the tensions of growing up, in which her fans can relate to. This video is also contrasting in the messages of innocence versus sexuality. Whilst the lyrics show her innocence for she is growing into her adulthood, her costume hints at her sexual appeal for the audience, which could suggest that she is trying to mature.

Laura Mulvey's feminist theory relates to pop videos as well as Hollywood Cinema, and it is present in most of Britney's videos. The male gaze recurs throughout Britney's videos. The male gaze is when women are viewed as objects of the males sexual desire. Britney's videos show a patriarchal society for it is primarily men who control her image, and throughout her videos, the audience is forced to identify with the male gaze. One good example of the male gaze present in Britney's videos is "Piece Of Me," in which Britney is wearing very revealing clothes and some lyrics of the song is "They still gon' put pictures of my derrière in the magazine" and Britney actually puts that article of the magazine in the video, which submits to the male gaze. 

However, like most artists, Britney had enough of the media causing negative problems for Britney, and her video for "Overprotected" showed her feelings. Britney's performance is a result of watching a news report on her wearing few clothes, and it is explained through the music video's narrative. Britney is rebelling against the male dominated industry, and she is trying to make a point that she is not longer a little girl, and she shouldnt be controlled and told what to wear. Being half-naked in the video is an empowering act. Also, there is a more confident tone to the choreographed routine, which suggests that Britney feels comfortable doing what she wants and that she has had enough of being controlled. 

When it comes to gender arguments, Britney Spears' music videos are apolysemic texts (texts that has many different meanings.) Her career has evolved from Teen Princess, with images of innocence, girliness with a slight connotation of sexual appeal, to a half naked woman performing for a male audience and trying to break free of her hold in the male dominated industry. 


After maturing in the music industry and trying to prove that Britney has changed, her video "Hold it against me" shows that Britney is rejecting her constructed image. Throughout this video, Britney is shown to be in the Panopticon prison, which was an idea created by Jeremy Bantham, showing that Britney is trapped by her image. She is surrounded by screens which are playing her old music videos, which creates the image of feeling trapped, suggesting she is in the panopticon prison. In the video, Britney is facing the old version of herself, and trying to fight against her old image to overpower it and show everyone that she wants to get rid of her constructed image. 

Don't Go Breaking My Heart Music Video

"Don't Go Breaking My Heart" is a famous duet by Elton John and Kiki Dee. It has been said that this song is one of the most cheapest music videos ever produced.

For our task, we had to recreate the opening of the song "Don't Go Breaking My Heart" and create our own music video to it, with people miming the lyrics of Elton and Kiki. We had quite a bit of footage, for we had to use over 10 different shots in the music video to keep our audience entertained and focused. We had to use whole takes of two members, Danny and Matas, in our group singing this song, and because we had to use over 10 different shots, we had to take over 10 different whole takes. We decided on a few different shots, such as side angles, low angles and close ups, for we thought that they might dramatise the video and make it more entertaining for the audience. We thought it would be best if Danny and Matas were singing out loud, for it would seem more authentic, and would make it easier to lip-sync. Also, for the video, we used a microphone and stand, to make the video more professional and genuine.

Each member in our group had to edit our footage individually to view different perspectives and skills of editing. I had to import all of my footage onto the editing software, Premier Pro, and then layer the footage on the timeline. I also had to import the original Don't Go Breaking My Heart audio onto the timeline. I then had to sync up my footage with the audio, so that the lip-syncing matched with the audio, to create the impression that it was actually Danny and Matas singing. I then looked through all the footage I had imported and I had to edit the footage so that there would be all different angles and shots in the music video which would make the music video more interesting for the audience. In doing so, I had to make sure that the different clips matched up so there was no continuity slips.

I think that what went well in my video was the lip-syncing matched the audio, so it had the impression that Danny and Matas were singing, the different shots and angles created an entertaining atmosphere which would allow the audience to enjoy the video. Also, I made sure that there was continuity throughout my video so it created a professional look.
However, there could be some improvements to my video. More sophisticated and professional shots could have been used, such as a rolling shot. We did try a rolling shot with the tripod on a dolly, but I thought the shot was unsatisfactory, so I did not use it in my video. Also, if we had a larger area to film the video, we could have used a wider range of shots, so next time I think it would be an improvement if we filmed in a larger space.

History of Pop Video

From Bing to the Beatles

Bing Crosby

Bing Crosby was an American actor and singer. During the 1940's, he starred in films and television shows. He was one of the best-selling recording artists of the 20th century, with over half a billion records in circulation. He was older than modern day celebrities; he was in his late 30's/early 40's when his fame peaked, and so he would not be a major attraction to the younger female audience. Crosby's biggest hit in his career was "White Christmas." After it was introduced, it soon appeared in his film "Holiday Inn," which rocketed the charts and stayed at No.1 for 11 weeks.

Frank Sinatra

In the 1950's, the era of Bing Crosby came to an end. He was then replaced by Frank Sinatra. Fans watched him in TV specials, concerts and films, and fans first started screaming in the era of Frank Sinatra. His musical career began in the swing era, with Tommy Dorsey and Harry James, and he became famous worldwide when he signed to Capitol Records in the early 1950's. Sinatra and Bing were similar for their music was alike, and they both appeared in film and television, however, Sinatra was much younger and he was more appealing to the female audience for he was more handsome. Also, unlike Bing, Sinatra used to perform live, although this was not often and so fans would mainly see him in TV shows and films.

Elvis Presley

In the late 1950's, Elvis Presley rose to fame and was crowned the King of Rock and Roll. His music was a lot different to what the audience's have already heard before, and his rock and roll style led him to becoming one of the world's biggest stars. President Jimmy Carter stated that Presley "permanently changed the face of American popular culture". Elvis starred in TV shows, films, and he used to perform in concerts, nut those were only performed in America, and so his fans from other countries would have to watch him on TV and in films. When Elvis first started performing, he had to be filmed from the waist up for his use of provocative and inappropriate dancing. He shocked adults, dazzled the teenagers of the generation, and soon, fans everywhere began to ditch their traditional outfits for clothes which resembled Elvis Presley, and some fans would even style their hair to match his.

The Beatles

In the 1960's, an English rock band named The Beatles was formed. They gained fame and popularity in the UK after their first hit "Love Me Do" in 1962. In early 1964, they became international stars and they were named the leaders of the "british invasion" of the United States pop market. After they dominated the UK, leaving behind an estimation of 4000 fans who surrounded Heathrow, screaming as they took off, they moved to the United States, and they first appeared on the Ed Sullivan show in 1964. This appearance gained many views and their fame rose, leading to their number one hit in the US. During 1964, The Beatles held twelve spaces in the Billboard Hot 100 chart, including the top 5, and their popularity produced remarkable interest in British music, and a number of British acts toured successfully in America in the next three years, which was named the "British Invasion". Many of their fans started to copy their hairstyle, which was mocked by adults for it was unusually long for their era, yet it became a symbol of rebellion for the expanding youth culture.

First Music Video

In 1964, The Beatles were struggling to compete with the amount of sound their fans generated. They had to have specifically designed 100-watt amplifiers, which was more powerful than the original amplifiers they used to use in their shows, but even these powerful amplifiers were inadequate to the volume of the screaming fans. During the constant struggle to allow their music to be hear over the fans, the band grew bored and agitated with performing live, and after they realised their shows were no longer about the music, they decided to make their August tour the last. After their touring finished, The Beatles took a new route into producing music for their fans. They created the single "Paperback," and the promotional video which they constructed was described as among "the first true music videos." This video was aired on the Ed Sullivan show and Top of the Pops in 1966, which was the start of the music video revolution.